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Woodworkers
and boat builders are, on the whole, a contentious bunch. They argue
about all kinds of things: tools, methods, aesthetics, materials. But
their favorite topic, the one to which they have turned with unfailing
habit for centuries, approaching it with an alchemical reverence that
borders on mysticism, is that of wood finishing. Fine finishes –
lustrous, highlighting the wood’s grain, inviting the hand to touch –
have long been the pinnacle of wood craftsmanship. Some violin makers
still preserve, even today, secret varnish formulas that have been
passed down through many generations. The long history of secrecy and
experimentation in wood finishing has led to its status as the most
complex subject in woodworking. This makes sense; there are, after all,
hundreds of ways to effectively finish wood. Depending on the intended
effect, excellent results can be achieved with milk, crazy glue, the oil
from walnuts, and many other surprising products. Faced with the
overwhelming diversity of finishing products on the market today, many
people working on boats surrender either to the marketing ploys of
manufacturers or to the old habit of finishing everything with spar
varnish. But wood finishing can be a joy, and if you follow a few simple
guidelines, it can be easy as well.
Install Your Wood Properly
Many
problems with finishing, and particularly with refinishing, are
unrelated to the finish itself but derive instead from chemical
reactions between metal fasteners, water, and wood. If you’re installing
and finishing new wood, use dry wood (below eighteen per cent moisture
content), and use high-quality, corrosion-resistant fasteners (corrosion
accounts for about thirty per cent of all marine equipment failures).
Pre-drill and countersink all screws before installation. Make sure that
the angle made by the underside of the screw heads matches the angle of
your countersink: wood screws usually have an eighty-two degree angle,
machine screws are shaped to ninety degrees. If you neglect to
countersink effectively, a small air pocket is left inside the screw
hole. Over time, this will fill with water or ambient moisture – even
beneath a thick finish – and will create a streak or stain, particularly
in woods such as oak. If you have the joinery skills, avoid fasteners
altogether and use, instead, traditional joints glued with epoxy. Such
joints are almost always stronger than those made with fasteners.
Sand, Clean, Sand Again (and Again)
Wood
must be sanded before finishing. This series of steps frequently takes
as much time as shaping and installing the wood. Don’t take shortcuts
here, or rush through. Go slow. Watch for imperfections and rough spots
that may appear as you move through the wood layers. Unless the piece is
very small, sanding should be done by machine. Avoid belt sanders,
which are easy to use improperly, resulting in uneven surfaces and
excess wood removal. For sheer violence upon the wood, power washing is
even worse that belt sanding. The water stream pounds the wood fibers
into uneven grooves, leaving the surface clean but rough. A power washer
should never be used in the finishing or refinishing of wood; nor
should two-part acid solutions, once popular in the cleaning of teak,
that act by dissolving the wood. If you must remove old finish, use a
methylene chloride or citrus-based stripper: both minimize harm to the
wood’s underlying surface. Usually, new finish can be applied right over
older, worn layers of film that are cleaned and sanded properly.
Ideally,
invest in (or borrow) a random orbit sander, which abrades in swirling,
self-erasing patterns. Random orbit sanders create a uniform surface
regardless of the tool’s direction. Don’t push hard – this compromises
the swirling action. Start with 80 grit, if the wood feels rough to the
touch, but if it has already been smoothed by a power planer (this is
the case with most store-bought lumber) you can go straight to 120 grit.
Wherever you start, the central goal is to keep the wood surface flat.
Don’t dig in with the edge of the sander to reach a low spot. Be
patient, let the sander bring the wood into uniformity. You know you’ve
completed the work of a given grit when the surface no longer changes as
you sand. Each grit creates a particular refractory quality in the
wood, and with practice you can learn to distinguish this. Before you
change to the next highest grit, you must clean the surface of the wood.
Compressed air does a wonderful job (if you’re outside), as do tack
cloths, but brushes don’t work well. In a pinch, you can dampen a rag
with mineral spirits or alcohol and rub the wood down. Rough grit
particles left on the surface will be caught up by the sander and will
swirl across the wood, leaving permanent marks. Usually, such marks are
not visible until after the finish goes on. Most woodworkers start with
120 grit, move to 180, and finish with 220. You can go as fine as 2000
grit if you want, but it’s a question of diminishing returns, and 220 is
typically the best place to stop. Some woods, such as teak, are rich in
natural oils, and it’s a good to idea to wipe the wood with a solvent
such as acetone after the final round of sanding. This dissolves the
surface oils and helps with finish adhesion.
Choose the Right Finish
Some
decay-resistant woods such as teak, cedar, and oak can be left
unfinished, though finishing enhances their nautical appearance. A few
tropical hardwoods, such as cocobolo and lignum vitae, are difficult to
finish properly, and should be left bare. If you have a teak deck, leave
it bare. Clean the surface regularly with liquid soap, salt water, and
pot scrubbers used perpendicular to the grain. Don’t use a stiff or wire
brush, or rub with the grain, as this will have the same effect as
power washing. (Tough stains on teak can be removed by judicious
application of bleach, or oxalic acid solution.)
The advantage of
unfinished wood is that you will never have to refinish it; and if
installed properly, it will last generations. Most boat owners prefer,
however, the grain-enhanced sheen of an oil or film finish. At this
point, you have several options.
Oil
Quite
a number of oils can be used for finishing (mineral, tung, linseed,
walnut, soya, lemon). Their appeal lies both in the color they bring to
the wood and in their ease of application: wipe on, wait a few minutes,
wipe off. Tung oil (especially if polymerized) is the most resilient of
the oil finishes, and if applied in several coats – enough to build a
thin film – it provides some measure of protection against the elements.
So-called Teak oil is a marketing designation that refers to many
different oil (or oil and varnish) formulations. Such products vary
widely in quality; the best of them provide protection equivalent to
tung oil. Many varnishes can be applied over base coats of oil (check
the label). This is the best way to enhance the grain of any wood. Oil
finishes are easy to restore and re-apply. They are the simplest, least
labor-intensive finishes; but they are also least in longevity.
Oil and varnish
Many
woodworkers enjoy so-called Danish oil finishes, which have nothing to
do with Denmark. These are oils (tung or linseed) mixed with varnish, a
combination that offers the aesthetic advantages of oil but with greater
durability than oil provides on its own. You can make your own
oil/varnish mixture by mixing equal parts oil, varnish, and turpentine.
Apply the mixture with a rag, wait about twenty minutes until it begins
to become slightly tacky, then rub off all the remaining finish. Wait
twenty four hours and apply another coat. Four or five coats, applied
over a week, yield a lovely, soft look. And because the surface is wiped
clean with every coat, there’s no problem with dust accumulation, as
there is with varnish. As with straight oil, you can also use an
oil/varnish finish as a base for a more durable topcoat such as
polyurethane. This provides an excellent blend between beauty and
longevity.
Varnish
At
one time, varnish was made from a combination of plant-based resins,
linseed oil, and turpentine. Today, most varnishes use blends of
synthetic resins: polyurethane, phenolic, or alkyd polyester.
Polyurethane, also known as urethane, is more durable than the other
resins, but is also more likely to crack in marine environments. Modern
varnishes, which are essentially plastic, provide excellent moisture
resistance. The ratio between oil and resin determines the coating’s
hardness, and therefore its resistance to cracking and peeling. Spar
varnish, also called long oil varnish, simply has a bit more oil in it.
This makes the varnish more flexible, which is useful for nautical
equipment (like spars) in changing weather conditions. As environmental
concern increases with respect to the volatile solvents in varnish,
water-based products are increasingly appearing on the market. Many
offer protection equivalent to oil-based varnish (though the finish
looks slightly different).
When choosing varnish, look for tung
oil and a base of phenolic resin (flexible) or polyurethane resin (hard
and durable). Follow the application directions and pay particular
attention to minimizing dust. Resist the temptation to stop at one or
two coats. Apply several – as many as six or more – and sand lightly
with 220 grit between each (some products don’t require this step). Do
not apply varnish in direct sunlight, on damp days, or in high humidity.
Shellac
The
unique depth and color of the finish on fine antiques can be achieved
with only one product: shellac. Derived from the secretions of a tiny
insect – the lac bug, Laccifer lacca – shellac is widely used in the
culinary arts (for glazes) but has fallen out of favor in woodworking
since the advent of synthetic resins, which are easier to apply. Yet
shellac is a wonderful finishing product: highly water resistant (if
fresh, of good quality, and applied properly), non-toxic, easy to
repair, and with a lovely hue that no other finish can match. For
interior woodwork, shellac is unquestionably the most elegant solution.
It’s not as resilient as varnish, nor as moisture-resistant. But if
you’re a traditionalist, shellac can set your woodwork apart. The
learning curve for proper application is somewhat steep, but the rewards
are stupendous. It’s best to buy shellac in flakes and apply numerous
sprayed or hand-rubbed coats over preliminary coats of linseed or tung
oil (let the oil dry for a week). Each coat of shellac must be very
thin, so twenty or thirty coats is typical.
Epoxy and Varnish
After
extolling the virtues of shellac, an ancient finish that has fallen
almost entirely out of use, it seems only fair to introduce an entirely
new and technological approach. Traditionalists and woodworking purists
will object to epoxy on philosophical grounds, but epoxy is superior to
every other kind of finish in strength, resilience, and
moisture-resistance. The wing skins of fighter planes are made from
epoxy.
Unlike varnish, which is somewhat permeable, epoxy
completely seals the underlying wood. It’s essential, therefore, to use
very dry wood (less than fifteen per cent moisture content) and install
it properly. Any remaining moisture could show up beneath the film. And
if water enters from the outside and becomes trapped, the wood will rot.
Epoxy is also expensive. But with these caveats in mind, epoxy is an
ideal base finish.
Many boat builders use the West System
formulations, which come in two-part kits containing a clear resin and a
special coating hardener (number 207). Follow the directions exactly.
Don’t mix the contents by eye; use the optional mixing pumps that
dispense precise amounts for each component. After applying several
coats, finish the job with two or three coats of good quality varnish;
ideally, a two-part polyurethane. This will add color depth and, more
importantly, will protect against degradation of the epoxy film from UV
rays. Use a gloss if possible, to maximize sunlight reflection. The
varnish will protect the epoxy, and in turn the epoxy will provide a
stable base for the varnish so it doesn’t crack under
temperature-related expansion and contraction. These two combined
finishes provide substantially more protection than either used on its
own.
A Final Word
Finishes
require regular maintenance and replacement. Don’t expect to get more
than a few months from an oil finish, and more than a year or two from
varnish. Epoxy and varnish combinations will last longer. More coats of
any finish means more durability. Maintenance coats applied every year,
or every season with oil, prevent substrate damage and extra work. Do
the job properly from the start, maintain the finish frequently, and
your wood will shine.
A Postscript about Cetol
You
know the look: a russet orange in the wood, warm and distinctive. And
very popular. Cetol, a line of wood finishing products made by Sikkens
(a subsidiary of Akzo Nobel, a European coatings company), has made
significant progress in the North American market over the past several
years. The unique appearance of a Cetol finish (from which
traditionalists recoil in horror) suggests a unique product,perhaps
something new and more effective. But in fact Cetol is similar to
regular varnish: its formulation includes various processed oils and
alkyd resin. Fungicide and UV inhibitors are added to the mixture, as
they are in most high-end varnishes. And Cetol contains no polyurethane,
so the finish remains malleable. The particular hue of the finish
derives from synthetic iron oxide pigments added to the formulation.
These assist with UV screening, but their hue fades over time, and the
film itself begins to degrade – as with other varnishes – in about six
to eighteen months. Sikkens does not recommend the use of its regular
Cetol products (Cetol 1, 23 SRD, etc.) for marine use. These products
are for siding, garage doors, log homes, outdoor furniture and the like.
A specialized product, called Cetol Marine (with very similar
composition, in fact, to the other Cetol products) is slightly more
useful in salt water environments. Its durability is consistent with
other quality film finishes: the more coats you put on, the longer it
will last. Apply three coats per year for optimum protection and
longevity.
RV-Vehicle: Thetford Toilet Installation - DIY, tThe installation of our new Thetford brand toilet in Lady T. The old
toilet we believe is as old as she is and was not holding water in the
bowl anymore. To fix that we would have had to take the toilet out
anyway so we thought why not just put in a new one and brighten up the
bathroom a little.
_________________________________________
Yosys is a framework for Verilog RTL synthesis. It currently has
extensive Verilog-2005 support and provides a basic set of
synthesis algorithms for various application domains. Selected features
and typical applications:
Process almost any synthesizable Verilog-2005 design
Converting Verilog to BLIF / EDIF/ BTOR / SMT-LIB / simple RTL Verilog / etc.
Built-in formal methods for checking properties and equivalence
Mapping to ASIC standard cell libraries (in Liberty File Format)
Mapping to Xilinx 7-Series and Lattice iCE40 FPGAs
Foundation and/or front-end for custom flows
Yosys can be adapted to perform any synthesis job by combining
the existing passes (algorithms) using synthesis scripts and
adding additional passes as needed by extending the Yosys C++
code base.
Yosys is free software licensed under the ISC license (a GPL
compatible license that is similar in terms to the MIT license or the
2-clause BSD license).
Example Usage
Yosys is controlled using synthesis scripts. For example, the following
Yosys synthesis script reads a design (with the top module mytop) from
the verilog file mydesign.v, synthesizes it to a gate-level netlist
using the cell library in the Liberty file mycells.lib and writes the
synthesized results as Verilog netlist to synth.v:
This presentation slides
cover a wide range of topics related to Yosys. (The LaTeX source is
part of the Yosys source distribution. Fell free to adapt the slides as
needed.)
Johann Glaser and Clifford Wolf. Methodology and Example-Driven Interconnect
Synthesis for Designing Heterogeneous Coarse-Grain Reconfigurable
Architectures. In Jan Haase, editor, Models, Methods, and Tools for
Complex Chip Design. Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering. Volume 265,
2014, pp 201-221. Springer, 2013.
[download pdf]
In papers and reports, please refer to Yosys as follows: Clifford Wolf.
Yosys Open SYnthesis Suite. http://www.clifford.at/yosys/, e.g. using the
following BibTeX code:
@MISC{Yosys,
author = {Clifford Wolf},
title = {Yosys Open SYnthesis Suite},
howpublished = "\url{http://www.clifford.at/yosys/}"
}
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